The establishment and expansion of British dominion in India was a gradual process that transformed the British East India Company from a trading corporation into a territorial sovereign power. This process spanned from the early 18th century to the mid-19th century, culminating in direct Crown rule after 1857.

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1. Early Establishment: Trading Posts to Political Power

• Trading Beginnings: The British East India Company initially established trading posts (factories) in Surat (1612), Madras (1639), Bombay (1661), and Calcutta (1690).
• Decline of Mughal Power: The weakening of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb’s death (1707) created a power vacuum and political instability in India.
• Local Political Fragmentation: Regional powers such as the Nawabs of Bengal, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and others rose, often in conflict with each other.
• Company’s Military Build-Up: To protect its trade and interests, the Company raised its own military force, which became more professional and powerful over time.

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2. Expansion through Wars and Alliances

a) Bengal and the East India Company

• Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah of Bengal by forging alliances with discontented nobles like Mir Jafar. This victory gave the Company control over Bengal’s rich resources.
• Battle of Buxar (1764): The Company defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim (Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (Awadh), and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. This consolidated Company power in eastern India.
• Diwani Rights (1765): The Mughal Emperor granted the Company the rights to collect revenue (Diwani) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, marking the beginning of territorial administration.

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b) Expansion in South India

• Carnatic Wars (1746–1763): A series of wars fought between the British and the French for supremacy in the Carnatic region (present-day Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh). The British emerged victorious, diminishing French influence.
• Annexation of Mysore: The British fought four Anglo-Mysore wars against Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan (1767-1799). After Tipu Sultan’s death in 1799, Mysore became a subsidiary ally under British suzerainty.
• Anglo-Maratha Wars:
  • First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782): Ended inconclusively but set the stage for British interference.
  • Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805): British defeated Maratha chiefs and acquired large territories.
  • Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818): Resulted in the end of Maratha power; the British annexed most of their dominions.

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c) Expansion in Northern and Western India

• Subsidiary Alliance System: Introduced by Lord Wellesley (Governor-General, 1798–1805), it forced Indian rulers to accept British troops stationed in their territories and surrender control of external affairs to the British, making them subsidiary states under British protection.
• Doctrine of Lapse: Introduced by Lord Dalhousie (Governor-General, 1848–1856), this policy annexed any princely state where the ruler died without a natural male heir.
• Annexations:
  • Satara (1848), Jhansi (1854), Nagpur (1853), and Awadh (Oudh, 1856) were annexed using the Doctrine of Lapse or other pretexts.

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3. Administrative Expansion and Consolidation

• Revenue Administration: The British introduced new systems like the Permanent Settlement (1793) in Bengal, Ryotwari in Madras and Bombay, and Mahalwari in the North-Western Provinces to maximize revenue.
• Judicial and Legal Systems: Established uniform laws and courts, replacing many traditional practices.
• Infrastructure: Built railways, telegraphs, canals, and roads to facilitate administration and economic exploitation.
• Missionary Activities and Social Reforms: Encouraged western education and social reforms which aimed at ‘modernizing’ India but also created cultural tensions.

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4. The Revolt of 1857 and End of Company Rule

• Causes of Revolt: Widespread discontent among sepoys and civilians due to military grievances, annexations, social-religious interference, economic exploitation, and racial discrimination.
• Outcome: The revolt was suppressed but marked a turning point.
• Government of India Act, 1858: The British Crown took direct control of India, ending the rule of the East India Company. India became a British colony ruled by the Viceroy.

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5. Post-1857 Expansion

• Continued Annexations: Some smaller princely states and territories were annexed or brought under indirect control.
• Princely States: Around 565 princely states existed, ruled by Indian princes but under British paramountcy.
• Expansion of British India: By late 19th century, British India included directly ruled provinces and indirectly controlled princely states.

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Summary

The British dominion in India was established through a combination of military victories, diplomatic alliances, strategic policies like Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse, and administrative reforms. Starting from coastal trading posts, the British East India Company gradually became a powerful territorial state, eventually replaced by direct Crown rule after 1857. This expansion laid the foundation for the British Raj, which lasted until India’s independence in 1947.