Daftar Khannas and Related Sources
Daftar Khannas (literally, “Record Houses” or Archives) refer to the repositories of official documents maintained by medieval Indian administrations, particularly during the Mughal period. These archives are invaluable for reconstructing administrative, economic, and political aspects of history.
1. Firmans (Royal Orders/Edicts)
- Definition: A firman was a royal decree or order issued by the emperor, carrying the seal and authority of the sovereign.
- Nature: They could be general proclamations or address specific individuals, regions, or officials.
- Content:
- Grants of land (jagir or madad-i-ma‘ash)
- Appointments and transfers of officials
- Instructions to governors
- Diplomatic letters (including those to European powers)
- Significance:
- Provide direct evidence of the emperor’s will.
- Reveal administrative structure and royal patronage.
- Help understand relationships with nobles, religious groups, and foreign entities.
- Example: Farman issued by Aurangzeb to the British in 1686 allowing trade privileges.
2. Bahis, Pothis, and Akhbarat
These are less formal but highly significant administrative and local records.
Bahis
- Meaning “discussion” or “deliberations”, these are records of debates, dialogues, and transactions often maintained by scholars or scribes.
- Used to record local histories, religious discourses, and legal disputes.
- Helpful in understanding socio-religious developments.
Pothis
- Manuscript-style religious and historical texts, especially prevalent in regional traditions (e.g., Vaishnava, Sikh, Jain).
- Often autobiographical or hagiographical in nature.
- Important for reconstructing popular beliefs, oral traditions, and regional histories.
Akhbarat
- Daily reports sent from provinces to the imperial court, particularly during the Mughal era.
- Compiled by news-writers (waqia-navis) and intelligence officials (barid).
- Covered:
- Military movements
- Provincial administration
- Revenue collection
- Court politics and rumors
- Stored in the Daftar Khanna and form a core part of the Mughal state’s surveillance and record-keeping system.
- Crucial for studying day-to-day governance and centre-province communication.
3. Foreign Travellers’ Accounts – Persian and Arabic
Many travellers from the Islamic world visited India during the medieval period, leaving behind valuable travelogues.
Key Features
- Written in Persian and Arabic
- Provide external observations of Indian polity, culture, society, and economy
- Often subjective, but rich in detail
Notable Travellers
- Al-Biruni (11th century):
- From Khwarezm (modern Uzbekistan)
- Author of Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li’l-Hind
- Discusses Indian religion, science, and caste system
- Offers a rare scientific and ethnographic view of early medieval India
- Ibn Battuta (14th century):
- Moroccan traveller, appointed as Qazi under Muhammad bin Tughlaq
- His work Rihla describes Delhi Sultanate’s court life, administration, and cities
- Reveals both the grandeur and chaos of Tughlaq’s reign
- Abd al-Razzaq (15th century):
- Persian envoy from Herat to Calicut and Vijayanagara
- Describes Zamorin’s court and Vijayanagara’s splendour
- Key source on Indo-Persian diplomacy and trade
- Shihabuddin al-Umari (14th century):
- Egyptian scholar who compiled second-hand reports on India
- Describes India’s wealth and Delhi’s cosmopolitanism
Historical Value of These Sources
- Authenticity: Firmans and Akhbarat were part of state documentation, and thus highly credible.
- Richness: Pothis and Bahis offer grassroots views absent in official records.
- Perspective: Foreign accounts offer outsider views, sometimes more impartial or at least diverse in interpretation.
Limitations
- Selective Preservation: Many records have been lost or are scattered.
- Language and Deciphering Issues: Requires paleographic and linguistic expertise.
- Bias: Court chronicles and traveller accounts can be exaggerated or politically inclined.
Conclusion
Daftar Khannas and related documentary sources like Firmans, Pothis, Akhbarat, and foreign travellers’ accounts are essential for reconstructing administrative, religious, and cultural history of medieval India. Together, they offer a multi-layered and nuanced understanding of governance, diplomacy, society, and everyday life in that era.
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