UGC NET History: Neolithic and Chalcolithic Phase: Settlement, distribution, tools and patterns of exchange

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Neolithic Phase (New Stone Age) – c. 7000 BCE to c. 1000 BCE

General Features:

• Marked by the beginning of agriculture, animal domestication, pottery, and permanent village settlements.
• Tools became polished and more specialized.
• Neolithic Revolution: Transition from food gathering to food production.

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1. Settlement and Distribution:

Neolithic sites in India are regionally diverse and classified into three broad zones:

a) Northwestern and Western India:

• Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, now in Pakistan) – c. 7000 BCE
  • One of the earliest farming communities.
  • Evidence of wheat and barley cultivation.
  • Domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and goats.
  • Early mud-brick houses.

b) Ganga Valley and Northern India:

• Chirand (Bihar), Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh)
  • Use of polished stone tools.
  • Pit-dwellings and circular huts.
  • Cultivation of rice.

c) South India:

• Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh – Sites like Maski, Hallur, Brahmagiri, Paiyampalli.
  • Known for ash mounds, possibly ritualistic in nature.
  • Millets were cultivated.
  • Use of stone axes and celts.
  • Domestication of cattle, buffalo, and sheep.

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2. Tools:

• Polished stone tools: Axes (celts), adzes.
• Microliths used along with ground stone tools.
• Grinding stones for processing grains.
• Bone tools also found.

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3. Pottery:

• Handmade and sometimes burnished red ware.
• Unpainted or with simple incised designs.
• Pottery was not uniform—indicates regional variations.

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4. Patterns of Exchange:

• Local exchange networks for raw materials like:
  • Stone for tool-making (quartzite, basalt, granite).
  • Decorative items like shells and beads.
• Interaction between Neolithic and Mesolithic communities.
• Evidence of early trade in obsidian, semi-precious stones.

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Chalcolithic Phase (Copper-Stone Age) – c. 3000 BCE to 700 BCE

General Features:

• Introduction of copper tools alongside stone tools.
• Growth of agrarian societies, craft production, and long-distance trade.
• First use of metal (copper); however, bronze was rare.
• Settlements often found on riverbanks or fertile plains.

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1. Settlement and Distribution:

a) Western and Central India:

• Ahar-Banas Culture (Rajasthan): Sites like Gilund, Balathal
  • Black-and-Red ware pottery.
  • Copper tools and agricultural implements.
• Malwa Culture (MP): Sites like Navdatoli, Erandwane
  • Well-planned houses.
  • Evidence of farming, hunting, and gathering.
• Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra): Sites like Inamgaon, Daimabad
  • Planned settlements with streets.
  • Granaries, specialized craft areas.
  • Horse remains at Daimabad (controversial).

b) Eastern India:

• Odisha and West Bengal – fewer but significant sites.

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2. Tools:

• Copper: Axes, fishhooks, spearheads, bangles.
• Stone tools still in use—continuity with Neolithic.
• Specialized tools for agriculture and hunting.

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3. Pottery:

• Painted Pottery: Black-on-red, Black-and-Red Ware.
• Jorwe ware, Ahar ware, Malwa ware—regional variations.
• Often handmade but sometimes wheel-made.

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4. Patterns of Exchange:

• Trade networks across Deccan and northwestern regions.
• Items exchanged:
  • Copper, semi-precious stones (carnelian, agate).
  • Pottery, food grains, salt.
• Sites like Daimabad and Navdatoli show signs of long-distance trade.
• Bead-making, metallurgy, and pottery were specialized crafts.
• Use of river routes and overland paths for trade.

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Key Differences between Neolithic and Chalcolithic Phases:

Feature	Neolithic	Chalcolithic
Tools	Stone tools (polished)	Copper + stone tools
Pottery	Mostly handmade	Painted and wheel-made pottery
Metal Use	No metals	Beginning of metallurgy (copper)
Settlements	Early villages, pit dwellings	More organized settlements
Trade	Local barter	Expanded exchange networks
Food Production	Beginning of agriculture	Diversified agriculture, storage

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Important Sites and Their Cultures:

Site	Region	Culture	Features
Mehrgarh	Baluchistan	Neolithic	Early farming, mud houses
Chirand	Bihar	Neolithic	Rice cultivation, bone tools
Maski	Karnataka	Neolithic	Ash mounds, millet
Ahar	Rajasthan	Ahar-Banas	Copper tools, painted pottery
Daimabad	Maharashtra	Jorwe	Largest Chalcolithic site, copper hoard
Navdatoli	MP	Malwa	Planned houses, granaries

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Conclusion:

• The Neolithic phase marks the foundation of settled life with agriculture and animal domestication.
• The Chalcolithic phase represents a transitional era with early metallurgy, more organized settlements, and growing trade.
• These periods laid the groundwork for later urban civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization and early historic cultures.

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